Ecclesiastical Geography and Topography of the Christian World - Chapter XVIII

Chapter 18

The birth and development of Monasticism: the role of monks in the Christianization of Europe, the Cluny Abbey, and its cell system (obedience)

The development of Monasticism

Christian Monasticism developed at the end of the 3rd century. In the eastern regions of Egypt, Palestine and Syria, it constituted an individual spiritual experience in search of God through detachment from the world, renunciation of earthly goods and the dominion of passions. Individuals retreated into the desert to lead a life entirely dedicated to prayer and ascetic practices, in complete solitude (Hermitism) or in communities of monks (Cenobitism). The hermit choice was considered the highest form of spiritual life, but it was recognised that it was not accessible to everyone due to its hard sacrifices.

Hermitism

Hermitism, or eremitism, refers to withdrawing from society to live solitary, often in remote or secluded areas. This lifestyle is typically chosen for spiritual, religious, philosophical, or personal reasons. Hermitism has been practiced by individuals across various cultures and religions throughout history. Sometimes, hermits seek solitude to deepen their spiritual connection, engage in meditation, prayer, or contemplation, and pursue a more profound understanding of themselves and their world. The motivations for embracing hermitism can vary widely. Some may seek to escape the distractions and complexities of modern life, while others may be driven by a desire for self-sufficiency, simplicity, or a rejection of materialism. For some, it may respond to trauma or loss or stem from a desire for introspection and renewal. In many traditions, hermits are revered for their wisdom, insight, and spiritual depth. They may be seen as examples of asceticism, detachment, and dedication to higher truths. However, hermitism can also be challenging, as it often involves significant sacrifice and solitude, which can lead to feelings of loneliness, isolation, or even psychological distress if not approached with care. Hermitism represents a unique and profoundly personal path toward self-discovery, spiritual growth, and a more straightforward life.

 Cenobitis

Cenobitism is the opposite of hermitism. While hermitism involves solitary withdrawal from society, cenobitism involves communal living, typically within a religious or monastic community. The term "cenobite" comes from the Greek words "kenos" (typical) and "bios" (life), meaning "common life." In cenobitic communities, individuals come together to live and work near each other, sharing resources, responsibilities, and spiritual practices. This lifestyle is often associated with various religious traditions, including Christianity, Buddhism, and Hinduism. Cenobitic communities are structured around rules or guidelines, frequently established by a spiritual leader or tradition. These rules govern various aspects of communal life, including daily routines, work assignments, prayer or meditation practices, and interpersonal relationships. The primary goal of cenobitic life is often spiritual growth and communal support. Members of cenobitic communities work together towards common goals, such as serving others, deepening their understanding of their faith or spiritual tradition, and cultivating virtues like compassion, humility, and self-discipline. Cenobitic communities can vary widely in size, structure, and focus. Some may be large monasteries with strict hierarchies and formalised rituals, while others may be smaller intentional communities with a more flexible approach to communal living. Despite these differences, all cenobitic communities are committed to shared values, mutual support, and collective spiritual growth.

        Starting in the 4th century, these monastic experiences spread to the West, particularly in their cenobitic form (including female participation), involving many members of the urban aristocracies, at least in principle. Monasteries rapidly expanded in Italy, Gaul, the Iberian Peninsula, and Ireland, often located in rural areas rather than within cities. The increasing number and growth of monastic communities necessitated the creation of rules to regulate monks' lives in all organisational, disciplinary, liturgical, and practical aspects. The first collections of monastic norms, or rules, originated in the East, by Pachomius and Basil (4th century); subsequently, in the West, rules were formulated by notable figures such as Benedict, the founder of Monte Cassino (6th century), Colombanus (7th century), and Cesarius of Arles (6th century). In the 9th century, Benedict's Rule was established by the decision of the Council of Aachen in 816-817: from that moment on, it became the foundational text for all Western Monasticism. Benedictine Monasticism played a central role in the gradual formation of a distinctly Western Christian space, contributing significantly to the Christianization of society through missions to pagans and more forceful preaching aimed at those who had only been superficially Christianized. 

Map of significant monasteries in Italy and France, 6th - 8th century

Benedictine monastery in Subiaco

A very particular physiognomy was shown by the Monasticism that developed in Ireland, an island not colonised by the Romans and evangelised, according to tradition, by Patrick during the 5th century. Characterised by a marked ascetic rigor and equipped with stringent rules, Irish Monasticism constituted the backbone of the entire ecclesiastical structure of the island, which was essentially devoid of cities and therefore of an episcopal diocesan network. Irish monks such as the famous Columbanus, active at the beginning of the 7th century, then poured into the European continent, bringing the Gospel to only superficially Christianized territories (such as many areas of Gaul) and founding numerous monasteries, such as Luxeuil, in Burgundy, St. Gallen, in today's Switzerland, Bobbio, on the Piacenza Apennines. Subsequently, during the 8th century, other missionary monks from nearby Anglo-Saxon Britain (in the meantime evangelised in turn by Benedictines from Rome) went to preach in the heart of still pagan Germany, often finding martyrdom there, as in the case of Wynfrid-Boniface, killed by the Thuringians.

The Cluny Abbey

        Cluny is in southern Burgundy, a small valley along the Grosne River. The abbey was established thanks to William I, known as the Pious, Duke of Aquitaine, who proposed to Bernon, abbot of Baume les Messieurs and Gigny, to found a house of prayer on his lands. In September 910, the deed was signed, and the abbey was founded in William I's villa in Bourges. Thus, twelve monks settled in Cluny, placed under the protection of Saints Peter and Paul, following the rule of the Order of Saint Benedict. William I renounced all his rights to the new foundation, and consequently, the monastery became subject solely to papal authority. From the early years, men of great value succeeded one another at the helm of the abbey, including Odon I, the second abbot of Cluny, who was instrumental in the Cluniac reform. He founded numerous convents, including those in Italy, and reformed existing ones, such as Subiaco and the Abbey of Monte Cassino. With the fourth abbot, Mayeul, the buildings became too small to accommodate the continuously growing community. Therefore, he initiated the expansion of the structures and the construction of a new church known as Cluny II, which was inaugurated in 981; its design served as a model for many contemporary churches.

        The monastery's significance continued to grow, and in 932, under Abbot Odo I, Pope John federated the abbey with others, to which the priors had to report. During its peak expansion, the abbey oversaw over a thousand monasteries across Europe. In the 11th century, with Abbot Odilon, the abbey was essential in establishing feudal power. He was mainly involved in creating the "Peace of God," a declaration that prohibited soldiers in wartime from inflicting violence on religious individuals, women, children, farmers, and merchants, as well as their associated buildings, such as churches, monasteries, homes, and even crops and livestock. Within the rites conducted in Cluny, particular emphasis was placed on the cult of the deceased. Those who associated themselves with the Cluniac family through donations benefitted from the monks' perpetual prayers for their eternal rest. To highlight this concern, around 1030, Odilon established the Feast of the Dead to be celebrated on November 2, an observance that continues to this day.

The Cluny Abbey and its Cell System (Obedience)

        The cells, also called obedience, were private chapels acquired or donated to the abbey by Cluniac monks in various dioceses. These ecclesiastical institutions were exempt from the oversight of diocesan bishops. The appointment of priests, though not their consecration, was the responsibility of the before whom they reported. In turn, the priories and the entire network of dependent churches functioned like satellites around Cluny's gravitational center, establishing constant vertical relationships with the motherhouse and horizontal connections among themselves. Many of the churches or "cells" enjoyed rights of "cura animarum" (care of souls) and, as part of the "Cluniac system," they received immunity from the diocesan ordinary. Thus, although not personally engaged in pastoral care, the Cluny congregation monks inadvertently created areas of autonomy within diocesan territories. In some regions, a strong presence of priories and their cells developed in the countryside, notably in Lombardy.

The spread of monastic centres between the 10th and 11th centuries 

The Cluniac Order in the 10th - 11th centuries

Reconstruction of the Cluny Abbey in 1157.

A reconstruction of the famous Benedictine abbey at Cluny, Burgundy, based on extensive excavations, as it was about 1157. Cluny was the central monastery, with hundreds of dependent houses scattered over many lands, forming a vast hierarchy or monastic feudal system under the Abbot of Cluny. It was a new kind of monastery system.

The abbey church of Cluny was the largest religious building in Europe until the construction of St. Peter's Basilica. The immense Romanesque church measured 140 meters in length and had 5 naves, 500 column capitals and walls decorated with frescoes.

Cluny Abbey Today

        In 1789, the abbey became a national asset, and with a decree of November 2 of that year, the assets of the Church of France were placed at the nation's disposal. The French Revolution was fatal in Cluny; the buildings were destroyed after selling what they contained (from tapestries to furniture and objects of worship). 1793, the archives were burned, and the great library was looted. The abbey lands were sold in 1798 for 2.14 million francs. The abbey buildings were used as stone quarries for the area until 1813. To date, of the original structures, only 8% remains.

The Irish Monasticism

Irish Monasticism presents a unique and distinct profile, diverging significantly from its continental counterparts. This particular form of monastic life flourished in Ireland, an island untouched by Roman colonization. It was primarily shaped after the arrival of Christianity, traditionally credited to St. Patrick in the 5th century. The Christianization efforts initiated by Patrick established the foundations of faith and sowed the seeds for a religious way of life marked by an intense commitment to ascetic practices. 

Characterized by rigorous asceticism and stringent adherence to monastic rules, Irish Monasticism became the cornerstone of the ecclesiastical framework on the island. Its development was influenced by the social context of Ireland, which lacked large urban centers. Consequently, it did not possess the structured episcopal diocesan network often seen in other parts of Europe. Instead, monastic communities emerged as vital centers of religious, educational, and cultural life, with monks usually holding significant authority within their localities. 

Among these influential figures was Columbanus, a notable monk from Ireland who emerged during the early 7th century. He played a pivotal role in the missionary expansion of Irish Monasticism into the European continent, particularly in regions that had only superficially embraced Christianity, such as parts of Gaul. Through his tireless efforts, Columbanus founded several monasteries that became meaningful Christian learning and practice centres, most famously Luxeuil in Burgundy, St. Gallen in present-day Switzerland, and Bobbio in the Piacenza Apennines. These monasteries served as religious establishments and as hubs for cultural and intellectual exchange during a time when Europe was still in the early stages of Christianization. 

The influence of Irish monks extended further, notably during the 8th century, when a wave of missionary monks from Anglo-Saxon Britain, themselves evangelized by Benedictine missionaries from Rome, began their outreach in continental Europe, particularly in the heart of still-pagan Germany. This period was marked by extraordinary dedication, as these missionaries often confronted hostile environments. Their commitment and sacrifice were vividly illustrated by figures such as Wynfrid Boniface, who met his martyrdom at the hands of the Thuringians while preaching the Gospel. His death exemplified the perilous nature of missionary work during this era and underscored the tenacity of the faith that Irish and Anglo-Saxon monks carried with them. 

Irish Monasticism played a critical role in shaping the spiritual landscape of early medieval Europe. It served not only as a source of religious inspiration but also as a driving force behind the spread of Christianity into areas still steeped in pagan traditions. The legacy of these early monastic communities can still be felt today, as they laid the groundwork for the Christian church's presence across the continent.

Inishmurray Island, Ireland, early medieval monastic complex

Glendalough Abbey, also called «monastic city» Glendalough Monastic City), Ireland.

Early medieval Irish monastery - The Áed

(To be Continued)

Dr. Nicholas Macedon OCD

Carmelite Priory, Oxford.            

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