Ecclesiastical Geography and Topography of the Christian World

Chapter 19 (B)

Evangelisation of the Barbarians:

explaining how to name the emerging "Barbarian kingdoms" that developed on the remnants of the Western Roman Empire, and providing information on their conversion process, from paganism to Arianism and eventually to Catholicism, focusing on the specific case of the Kingdom of the Franks.

The Kingdom of the Visigoths: A Detailed Overview

The Visigoths, a branch of the Germanic peoples, established their presence in Aquitaine in the early Middle Ages and later extended their control over the Iberian Peninsula. This expansion reached its peak with the establishment of the Kingdom of Toulouse. However, their dominance was challenged and ultimately ended by a decisive defeat at the hands of the Franks in 507 AD. Following this loss, the Visigoths relocated and founded the Visigothic Kingdom of Toledo, a significant political entity in the Iberian Peninsula that lasted until the Arab invasion in 711 AD.

Conversion of Reccaredo I (work by Muñoz Degrain)

Initially, the Visigothic Kingdom in Toledo struggled to integrate with the predominantly Hispano-Roman population. This separation was marked by distinct cultural and religious differences that hindered cohesion within the kingdom. However, the Visigoths recognised the need to bridge this divide and began a process of acculturation that played a pivotal role in their reign. A turning point in this transformation occurred in 589 AD when King Reccaredo converted to Catholicism, inspired by the teachings of Leander, the bishop of Seville. This conversion was not merely a personal change of belief; it significantly broadened the basis of Reccaredo's power and facilitated the inclusion of Hispano-Roman elites within the political framework of the Visigothic kingdom.

Reccaredo's conversion established a close and fruitful relationship between the monarchy and the episcopate. The bishops, who gained recognised administrative powers, became integral to the kingdom's governance. Councils formed, which acted as large political assemblies where the king, members of the episcopal clergy, and the lay aristocracy convened to deliberate on matters of faith and other issues of general importance to the kingdom's livelihood. The resolutions of these councils carried civil authority and were incorporated into royal legislation, eventually codified in the Liber iudiciorum, a legal code commissioned by King Reccesvindo in 654 AD. This collaboration between the church and the monarchy created a strong bond that persisted until the kingdom's demise following the Arab conquests in 711 AD.

The Visigothic church of San Pedro de la Nave in the town of Campillo, 19 kilometres from Zamora, built in 680, represents the pinnacle of Visigothic art in Spain. The church was rebuilt in 1930 to prevent it from being submerged after the construction of a water dam

The diocese of Toledo, originally founded in the 1st century, played a vital role in the religious and political landscape of Spain. Its significance was elevated in 610 AD when it was designated a metropolitan archdiocese, a status that transferred authority from the older seat in Carthage, then under Byzantine control. Over the centuries, Toledo emerged as the most important diocese in Spain, serving as the seat of the Primate of Spain. The grand cathedral, known as Santa Maria dell'Assunzione, stands as a monumental symbol of this ecclesiastical prominence, reflecting the rich history and religious heritage that have shaped the region. Through its bishops and the unique interplay with the monarchy, Toledo became a central hub for both governance and spirituality in the Visigothic Kingdom.

The city of Toledo was the capital of the Visigothic kingdom

The Visigothic kingdom in the second half of the 5th century

Visigothic Spain and its regional divisions in 700, before the Muslim conquest

The Reign of the Ostrogoths

In the late 5th century, the Eastern Roman Emperor Zeno made a pivotal decision that would significantly affect the course of Italian history. In 488 AD, he encouraged the migration of the Ostrogothic tribes, who were settled in the Balkans, into Italy. This move served multiple strategic purposes: it aimed to remove these formidable groups from the empire's eastern borders and simultaneously sought to mitigate the ongoing challenges posed by Odoacer, the barbarian leader who had established a contentious regime in Italy. Essentially, Zeno employed the traditional imperial tactic of using one barbarian force to counter another, hoping to reinstate stability in the region.

Under the leadership of their king, Theodoric, a member of the noble Amali lineage, the Ostrogoths embarked on their journey to Italy. They arrived with the dual intention of establishing their own dominion and dismantling Odoacer’s rule. In 493 AD, following a series of military confrontations, they overthrew and executed Odoacer, thereby laying the groundwork for the formation of the Ostrogothic Kingdom.

Once established, the Ostrogoths dispersed throughout Italy, although their settlement patterns were marked by significant imbalances. Due to their relatively small population, they concentrated primarily in the northern regions of the peninsula. This strategic distribution aimed to bolster defences along the Alpine frontiers, where potential invasions from other barbarian tribes loomed large.

The Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy was characterised by several unique features that reflected a blend of barbarian and Roman traditions. One of the most notable aspects was the maintenance of the late imperial administrative and bureaucratic systems. This was intentionally designed to project an image of continuity with the legacy of the ancient Roman emperors, suggesting that the Ostrogoths were legitimate successors rather than mere conquerors.

Another significant element of Ostrogothic rule was the coexistence of the Goths and the Romans, predicated on a clear delineation of roles and responsibilities. The Ostrogoths, viewing themselves as “foederati” (allied troops), were exclusively granted the authority to bear arms, thereby consolidating military power within their ranks. In contrast, the Romans, who constituted the majority of the civilian population, were relegated to economic and administrative roles, thereby allowing them to maintain their traditional civic structure while coexisting with their conquerors.

The Roman Senate remained a critical institution during this period, retaining considerable influence within the kingdom. Many of its distinguished members served as ministers and advisors to King Theodoric, thereby fostering collaboration between the new rulers and the Roman elite.

Culturally and ethnically, the distinction between the Goths and Romans persisted, cementing a dual identity within the kingdom. The Goths were predominantly adherents of Arian Christianity, which set them apart from the Romans, many of whom remained faithful to Catholicism. This religious divide added another layer of complexity to their interactions, fostering a sense of otherness among the Goths.

Moreover, the legal framework of the Ostrogothic kingdom was based on the principle of personality of law, meaning that legal systems were determined by ethnic identity. This approach allowed for a system in which both Goths and Romans had their own laws, reflecting their distinct cultural backgrounds and experiences. In practice, this meant that justice was administered differently depending on one's ethnic origin, further entrenching the social divisions that characterised the Ostrogothic reign in Italy.

Through these measures, the Ostrogothic Kingdom sought to establish itself as a legitimate and enduring power, navigating the complexities of governance in a land rich in history and cultural diversity.

The Greek Gothic War

Emperor Justinian I with his entourage, Ravenna, Basilica of San Vitale

Following the death of Theodoric the Great in 526, the Gothic aristocracy found itself deeply divided, grappling with how best to navigate its political future in relation to Constantinople. This internal strife was exacerbated by the tragic fate of Amalasunta, Theodoric's daughter and a prominent advocate of renewed diplomatic engagement with the Eastern Roman Empire. Her assassination at the hands of her cousin, Theodatus, who opposed such reconciliatory measures, marked a significant turning point. This act of violence not only intensified the power struggles within the Gothic leadership but also catalysed broader conflicts.

Amid this backdrop, Flavius Peter Sabbatius Justinian, commonly known as Justinian I the Great, became the Byzantine emperor on August 1, 527. Born in Tauresium (present-day North Macedonia) in 482, Justinian emerged as the last emperor educated in a thoroughly Latin environment, reflecting his upbringing in a family steeped in Roman tradition. His reign, lasting until his death on November 14, 565, is celebrated as a pivotal era for the Eastern Roman Empire, often viewed as a golden age characterised by remarkable achievements in civil administration, economic revitalisation, and military conquests.

The reconquest of Justinian

The Greek-Gothic war constitutes the last great attempt to recompose the unity of the Empire and the Mediterranean

Central to Justinian’s vision was the Restauratio Imperii, the restoration of the empire's former glory. He launched an ambitious military campaign to reclaim lost territories in the West, and the campaigns led by his generals, Belisarius and Narses, were instrumental. Between 535 and 555, these military actions culminated in the conquest of the Italian peninsula, effectively reestablishing Byzantine control over regions once integral to the Western Roman Empire.

The outcomes of the Greek Gothic War were profound and lasting. By its conclusion, the Gothic lineage was effectively dismantled; many of its leaders were killed or displaced, and the remaining Gothic populace faced the choice of either abandoning their homeland or merging into the local Italian population. This conflict not only reshaped the region's demographics but also signalled a significant moment in the ongoing struggle between the Eastern Roman Empire and the remnants of Western Roman influence in Italy.

During Justinian's reign, the empire also saw significant architectural advancements, most notably the construction of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, which remains a striking testament to Byzantine ingenuity. His patronage of the arts and commitment to cultural revival spurred a flourishing of historical documentation, as evidenced by the works of eminent historians such as Procopius of Caesarea, Agatia, Giovanni Lido, and Paolo Silenziario. Collectively, these efforts solidified Justinian's legacy as one of the most important rulers of late antiquity and early medieval times, influencing the course of history in both the East and West.

Exarchate of Italy (of Ravenna)

In 554, Emperor Justinian implemented significant administrative reforms by extending the Pragmatic Sanction, a major piece of Roman legislation, to the entire Italian peninsula. This led to the establishment of a prefecture with Ravenna as its capital. Justinian sought to assert Byzantine control over the Italian peninsula through a protectorate centred in Ravenna, to be governed by a series of appointed exarchs. As part of this strategy, he ensured that the episcopal see of Ravenna was occupied by Maximian, a trusted confidant. By imperial decree, Maximian was granted the status of autocephalous archbishop, establishing a precedent for the archbishops of Ravenna to assert their autonomy vis-à-vis the papacy, a situation that would persist in subsequent centuries.

By approximately 582, this evolved administrative structure of the Byzantine Empire became specifically known as the Exarchate of Italy or the Exarchate of Ravenna. This territorial designation referred to an administrative district that encompassed most of the Byzantine territories on the Italian peninsula during the 6th to 8th centuries. The administrative nucleus was Ravenna, and over time, the term "Exarchate" came to be associated particularly with the regions surrounding this capital, notably the Pentapolis, an area comprising cities such as Ravenna, Forlì, Forlimpopoli, Classe, and Cesarea.

The formation of the Exarchate was tied to a broader administrative transformation that affected both Italy and parts of North Africa between 572 and 582. In Italy, the ongoing militarisation of the surviving Byzantine territories was driven by the pressing need to enhance defences against the Lombard threat, which posed a significant challenge to Byzantine control. This need for increased military presence necessitated a shift in the traditional separation of civil and military powers, a foundational principle upheld in imperial administration from Diocletian through Constantine.

As the situation evolved, the consolidation of military authority over civil governance became essential. While civil authority was not immediately abolished, its significance steadily diminished as military officers gained prominence, centralising both civil responsibilities and military command. Although civil offices, such as the praetorian prefecture of Italy, continued to exist, they were increasingly subordinate to the military governors known as duces. Over time, the terminology surrounding governance began to overlap, with the term "duchy" becoming synonymous with "province."

The duces, also referred to as magistri militum, assumed command of the regional armies and were supported by individual cities, each fortified by military regiments, typically numbering around 500 soldiers. Each regiment was led by a tribunus or a comes, ensuring a structured military presence in urban centres. These military leaders reported directly to the exarch, who served as the overall governor of the Byzantine territories in Italy.

The exarch wielded both civil and military authority, a unification of powers that was unprecedented but necessitated by the geopolitical circumstances of the time. Residing in the historic palace of Theodoric in Ravenna, the exarch was directly appointed by the emperor and, in theory, oversaw the governance of all Italy (the term "ad regendam omnem Italiam" denoting this). The exarch was typically chosen from a select group of individuals holding the title of patricius, a rank that indicated their high status within the Byzantine hierarchy. Through this intricate system of governance, the Exarchate of Italy became a crucial element of Byzantine strategy and administration.

Ravenna: The Capital of the Exarchate

In the early 6th century, Emperor Justinian I established a protectorate over the Italian peninsula, with Ravenna designated as its capital. This strategic choice was due, in part, to Ravenna's secure location and its status as a vital military and administrative hub. To ensure loyalty and control over the region, Justinian appointed exarchs, governors endowed with significant power to oversee the administration and military affairs of the Exarchate. In a notable move to consolidate ecclesiastical control, he also appointed Maximian, a trusted confidant, to the episcopal throne of Ravenna. This appointment was pivotal, as it marked the beginning of Ravenna's autocephalous archbishopric, a position that would continually assert its independence from papal authority. Over time, the Church of Ravenna emerged as the foremost archbishopric within the Italian territory.

In 584, Emperor Maurice enacted a comprehensive reform of the Exarchate's administrative organisation, partitioning the territory into seven districts to be rigorously governed by the exarch based in Ravenna. The divisions included:

- The Exarchate proper, stretching from the Panaro River to Ravenna.

- The Pentapolis, a cluster of five cities along the Adriatic coast.

- The Roman Duchy, encompassing the area around Rome.

- Liguria, the coastal region known for its picturesque landscapes.

- Venice and Istria are significant for trade and maritime activities.

- The Duchy of Naples was a crucial cultural and social centre.

- The Duchy of Calabria, which included Bruzio and the southern portion of Apulia, was vital for its agricultural output.

The Basilica of San Vitale is one of the most famous and important Catholic places of worship in Ravenna, an exemplary masterpiece of early Christian and Byzantine art. The building, a masterpiece of Ravenna architecture, combines Roman architectural elements (the intrados dome, the shape of the portals, the towers) with Byzantine elements (the polygonal apse, the capitals, the brick construction, etc.).

Following the conclusion of the Gothic War, Dalmatia became part of the praetorian prefecture of Illyricum. In contrast, Sicily remained outside the jurisdiction of any prefecture. Consequently, the praetorian prefecture of Italy became confined to the Italian mainland, effectively excluding the islands. The conventional civil authority was theoretically vested in the praetorian prefect stationed in Ravenna; however, in practice, this authority was consistently overshadowed by military command. The generalissimo (strategos autokrator), Narses, assumed a dominant role in the governance of Italy, functioning as the effective ruler.

It is believed that the Italian prefecture was structured into two dioceses, reminiscent of the organisation of the late Roman Empire. Despite a resurgence of slavery during this period, Narses initiated an ambitious artistic and architectural program in Ravenna, aiming to restore some semblance of grandeur lost amidst the turmoil of war. The extent to which Roman law was enforced in the reconquered territories remains uncertain; however, it is evident that bishops gained significant judicial authority, administering justice through specialised courts known as the malleus.

The devastation wrought by the Gothic War was extensive. Cities across Italy lay in ruins, with Rome in particular suffering considerable destruction, retaining only one functional aqueduct amid the wreckage. The prominence of the Roman Senate declined dramatically, inching toward irrelevance in the new political landscape. In response to calls for aid, Justinian's Pragmatic Sanction promised financial support for reconstruction and the cultivation of culture within the city. However, the Byzantines failed to fulfil their promises; little was done to restore Rome to its former glory, with the only notable public construction being a bridge rebuilt in 565.

Apse of the basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna, decorated with Byzantine mosaics (completed by 547)

Under Narses' leadership, significant reconstruction efforts commenced, focusing primarily on reinforcing city defences rather than restoring cultural landmarks. Despite Justinian's intentions, as outlined in the Pragmatic Sanction, to curb the excesses of imperial tax collectors in Italy, abuses persisted unabated. The Byzantine inheritance of the heavy-handed late Roman taxation system led to widespread oppression; tax collectors, motivated by corruption, routinely extorted much higher sums than necessary, pocketing the surplus for personal gain, thereby exacerbating the plight of the populace. This oppressive tax regime cultivated resentment among the people and posed ongoing challenges to the stability of Byzantine governance in Italy.

The Kingdom of the Lombards

In the annals of Italian history, the era following the reconquest of Italy by Emperor Justinian stands as a pivotal moment. Italy had been under imperial control for only fifteen years after the Gothic Wars before it faced the incursion of a new group of formidable warriors, the Lombards, in 569 AD. This tribe originated in Scandinavia and had traversed various territories, finally emerging from Pannonia, where they had concluded a lengthy migration characterised by trials and tribulations. Led by their ambitious King Alboin, the Lombards entered Italy from its northeastern borders, demonstrating a remarkable, albeit chaotic, expansion across the Italian landscape.

The Lombards' invasion was marked by disorganisation, as they split into various bands or factions, each operating under the authority of military leaders known as dux (dukes). This disarray was exacerbated by the relatively small number of Lombards and their limited political and military unity. Each duke exercised considerable autonomy, acting independently from the royal authority of King Alboin. The imperial administration in Constantinople was preoccupied with conflicts on multiple fronts, particularly against the Avars in the Balkans and the Persians, rendering them incapable of effectively responding to the Lombard incursion.

Within a few years, the Lombards occupied a significant portion of northern and central Italy, extending their influence into regions such as Tuscany. However, they faced challenges in their conquests, and certain areas, notably the upper Adriatic and upper Tyrrhenian coasts, remained under imperial control. Even within regions nominally dominated by the Lombards, enclaves of Roman authority persisted. Notably, offshoot groups of Lombard warriors carved out autonomous duchies in regions such as Spoleto and Benevento, establishing local governance. Driven by a zealous desire for conquest, the Lombards initially engaged in brutal massacres, a stark contrast to the role of foederati (allied tribes), before gradually refining their approach by the end of the 6th century. This period also saw a significant religious transformation, as many Lombards shifted from Arianism to the Nicene Creed, aligning themselves with the Catholic Church.

Pavia emerged as the Lombard capital, serving as the seat of the king’s authority. The kingdom was structured into approximately 35-36 duchies, each governed by a duke, with a steward (or missus) responsible for upholding the king’s interests in each region. The aristocracy consisted of arimanni, a class of warrior landowners who controlled substantial property and played vital roles within their localities. In this newly formed kingdom, political power was reserved exclusively for the Lombards, effectively excluding the native Roman populace from political participation. The Roman citizens, while retaining their social and economic roles, sought solace and guidance from their bishops, who served as the intermediaries between the two worlds.

The 7th and 8th centuries saw the Lombard kingdom enter a phase of consolidation and expansion. Under the reign of King Liutprand from 713 to 744, the notion of Lombards evolved beyond an ethnic identification to encompass a ruling elite composed of intertwined ethnic groups, establishing a new socio-political identity centred on land ownership and warrior status. While the Lombards embraced Catholicism and increasingly engaged with ecclesiastical institutions, their relations with the Papacy remained strained. The Lombard kings harboured ambitions to seize Ravenna by capitalising on the weakening Exarchate and internal divisions within the Catholic community, especially amid the tensions arising from the iconoclastic controversy triggered by Emperor Leo III’s condemnation of the veneration of icons in 726.

Ravenna eventually fell to Lombard forces around 750-751. In response, Pope Stephen II, apprehensive about the Lombards’ intentions toward Rome, sought assistance from Pepin the Short, the King of the Franks, for the first time. He urged Pepin to intervene in Italy and reclaim the exarchal territories, which he intended to designate as the Patrimonio di San Pietro, effectively placing them under the auspices of the Roman Church. This appeal marked a crucial turning point in papal power, as it signalled the Papacy’s inaugural direct political role and established an alliance with the Franks to counter the Lombard threat.

The outcome of this alliance was the Treaty of Quierzy, forged by Pepin the Short in 754, which transferred control of Ravenna to the Pope. However, the implementation of this pact proved challenging, as Lombard forces continued to exert influence over the city until 756. Following this, the local archbishops, backed by their aristocracy and leveraging long-held privileges that granted the Ravenna Church autocephaly, effectively managed the region’s governance. These privileges eventually set the stage for conflicts between the archbishops and the Roman popes, as the archbishops supported various imperial claims, notably those of the Ottonian and Swabian dynasties, leading to a complex web of political dynamics in medieval Italy.